Topic 3 - Potential Exam Question 1

How do you think situation-based learning (problem-based, project-based, authentic learning etc.) could help liberate codified academic knowledge from its original academic source and make it ready for transfer? (Erault, 2004). What could be the place of reflection in this process? Support your argument with references to the existing literature.

- Learning influenced by socially constructed context thus all knowledge is cultural and socially situated

- Supports SBL with need for individual and socially situated concept of knowledge, individual perspectives on learning in complex rapidly changing world.

- Individual experiences w several social groups where they acquire/contribute knowledge – interpret in personal context shaped by these experiences

- Greater the range of knowledge usage = more personal meaning.

- Focus on use value of knowledge cf exchange value = holistic rather than fragmented approach.

- Many HE programs separate theory and practice, work against integration, separate knowledge and competence w/o giving attention to linkages between them and how knowledge used.

- Development of more integrated programs could increase quality of work.

Definitions:

- Codified academic knowledge = part of cultural knowledge codified in textual form and widely accessible in libraries – that typically learnt in formal, HE.

- Tacit knowledge = plays key role in work based practices, hard to make explicit in textual form, occurs in formal/informal settings: Acquired informally via participation social activities, learnt through experience, “taken for granted” – prominent feature of formal HE in spite of dominance of codified.

- Personal knowledge = counterpart to cultural knowledge = what individuals “bring to situations that enables them to think/interact/perform.” Codified provides basis for academic performance, education assessments where more than knowledge replication expected. Non-codified = far broader– everyday knowledge of people/situations, know-how, memories of events, self- knowledge, attitudes, emotions.

Types of knowledge acquired in education: 

- Minimal applied aspects. Content and practice influenced by academic/vocational experience of teachers –drawn from own grads, little experience in relevant occupations - codified academic knowledge dominates but learning this is tip of “iceberg” – Further learning required to convert this into personal knowledge ready for use in range of situations. Knowing how to use theoretical knowledge is largely tacit knowledge.

Types of knowledge used in WP and conditions of use:

- Theoretical knowledge alert workers to implications of situation aspects, if relevance recognized – but without personal theories constructed from experience, need engage in slower approaches or consult others so new practices acquired w/o theoretical justification.

- WP requires knowledge acquired through experience working in context, adaptation to range of context, integration several kinds of knowledge

- Educating how theory relates to practice means relevant theory assembled, but impossible to implement in WP where current practices accepted as reality

- No time/funds for analytical deliberative approaches favored in HE, increased reliance on tacit knowledge + most theory embedded in practice than used explicitly, remains dormant until triggered by situation.

-In practice, patterns develop -> recognizing what theory relevant is learned through practice and feedback.

- Gap between education (theory/knowledge deemed relevant by teacher) and WP setting (activities performed/knowledge prioritized by worker)

- Teaching theory in education setting does not means transferability/ generalisability.

- Transfer = “Learning process involved when person learns to use previously acquired knowledge/skills/competency/expertise in new situation”

- Final transfer stage = combining relevant aspects of knowledge into integrated/holistic performance.

- Transfer from education to WP challenging due to diff context/culture/modes of learning, but neglect of transfer attributed to cultural gap and ignorance of nature/amount of learning involved.

- SBLs attempt to bridge gaps - codified academic knowledge only liberated from original source, ready for transfer, with provision of PBL and seminars whose prime purpose is to link prior theoretical knowledge with reflections on personal WP experience, where one can interpret experience and relevant theory = reflective practitioner model

- To understand underlying purpose/meaning of info, make critical assessment and reach personal viewpoint – requires restructuring info, transforming/resituating theoretical knowledge

– Broad scope of PBL cases ensures cover relevant codified knowledge/wider range theory w/o inducing cognitive o/load, while also describing activities, response and monitoring -> transform not transfer

- Practice selects most relevant aspects of knowledge before use of knowledge -maps taught in practice setting and in real-time when relevant events occur = useful for hidden aspects of practice.

- Experience and reflection on one’s experiences helps workers see situations holistically

- Competency not just being able to do things but also correct reading of situations so appropriate action taken – not only external environment changes: performer affects environment, so must provide feedback on effect of own performance.

- Knowledge transfer = simple transfer vs being competent: individual critical reflection/re-evaluation so practice can be justified and remains under one’s critical control, therefore can w/stand challenge -> problems occur when use of knowledge not under critical control: 1. Problematic cases cannot be resolved unless underlying principles understood, 2. Danger that scientific knowledge replaced by unscientific.

Gonczi (2013)

- agrees with Eraut, questions assumption that competence depends largely on prior understanding of codified knowledge. Way one thinks influenced by past/present environment, community, social situation, emotional support.

- Advantages of holistic/integrated competency-based approach to learning: more coherent links practice to theory, links ‘knowing that’ and ‘how,’ enhance students’ LL adaptability and flexibility, more valid assessment strategies.

- WP performance is holistic process involving reasoning, emotions, specific knowledge, individual dispositions - need combination of attributes in particular context, rethought, recontextualized rather than simply transferred theory application.

- Decision making also does not follow theories because problems ill defined, information incomplete, time constraints - involve combination of personal knowledge gained through experience, context specific cultural knowledge, codified knowledge not always theoretical.

- How student translate theory into practice = SBL: provide them with integrated experiences that they can reflect on, leading to further growth, rather than thinking how students might ‘transfer’ codified knowledge - combines process and content, much closer to the practical world - also use integrated authentic assessment.

- Not abandon codified knowledge, but rethinks connection to practice and tacit knowledge

- SBL overcomes narrow technical focus without broader contextual understanding and poor connections between formal knowledge and experiential learning, brings together general and vocational/specific.

Herrington, Reeves & Oliver (2009) 
- Quote Vrasidas & Glass: “Students learn best when they are actively engaged in meaningful activities; when they collaborate with peers, exchange ideas, and provide and receive peer feedback; when they reflect critically on what they are doing; when they work on real-world, challenging, authentic activities; when their work is constantly evaluated; and when they are intrinsically motivated. But we tend to forget that teachers learn best in these ways too.”

- Agrees transfer not easily done by learning abstract/decontextualized concepts. - Is influenced by initial learning experiences.

- Need context that enables reflection on new experiences, supportive culture, establishment of community, engagement in authentic/meaningful experiences.

- Transfer as prep for future learning - transfer of knowledge facilitated if well learned to begin with. Building rich knowledge-to-knowledge, knowledge-to-context connections (incl monitoring one’s learning and reflecting) effects knowledge accessibility/transfer to other contexts so content need not be directly targeted.

Bulman, Lathlean& Gobbi (2014)

- Critical of education approach characterised by learning theory and attempting to apply to practice.

- Theory cannot be applied ‘off the shelf’, because problems need to be worked out, thought through = theory becomes transformed - therefore relevance of theory depends on ability to use it.

- Highlights theory-practice gap and requirement of HE to develop thinking, learn from practice to make positive difference.

- Reflective education used to develop this “being critical” in order to learn through experience.

- Reflection = process of critically reviewing experience from practice so it may be used to inform and change future practice in positive way.

- Involves more than ‘intellectual thinking’ - combined with feelings/emotions, acknowledges inter-relationship with action

- Enabling students to learn how to learn through the development of effective critical thinking skills, further concept of ‘critical being’ encapsulates development of critical thinking and critical development of oneself and commitment to take action in WP.

- Educators, HE and WP environments need to work together to develop conducive environments essential to successful reflection - study highlights significance of developing supportive culture in which reflection promoted and valued.

References

Bulman, C., Lathlean, J. & Gobbi, M. (2014). The process of teaching and learning about reflection: research insights from professional nurse education. Studies in Higher Education, 39(7), 1219-1236.

Eraut, M. (2004). Transfer of knowledge between education and workplace settings (Chapter 12, pp. 201-221). In H. Rainbird, A. Fuller & A. Munro (Eds.). Workplace Learning in Context. London: Routledge.

Gonczi, A. (2013). Competency-Based Approaches: Linking theory and practice in professional education with particular reference to health education. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 45(12), 1290-1306.

Herrington, J., Reeves, T.C., & Oliver, R. (2009). Transfer of online professional learning to teachers classroom practice. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 20(2), 189-213.